Origin of Kusunda Language: A Debatable Issue

 

Origin of Kusunda Language: A Debatable Issue

 Kusunda is the unique language of this region which has no similarities among the other languages of the world. There has been a long debate among the linguists about the origin of the Kusunda language. However, a number of eminent linguists have written that Kusunda language might be Tibeto-Burman borrowings. Robert Shafer (1954) was the first scholar to notice Kusunda as a language isolate. Professor H. Fleming as well as most other linguists also believe that this is a language isolate. Yet, it may be argued that Indo-European, Tibeto-Burman as well as other languages also shared with Kusunda. It is a matter of serious study as to what is the genesis of Kusunda language in the Himalayas. The Kusunda people, their language and culture are very important to both linguists and anthropologists alike. Recently they have forgotten most of their own culture and tradition but their language still living at the moment. Prof. Pokherel (2012), describes that the Kusunda as a language isolate, not related to any common language of the world. According to him, there are about 20 language families in the world, among them are the Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, and Austro-Asiatic group of languages- Kusunda stands out because it is not phonologically, morphologically, synthetically and lexically related to any other languages of the world. He warns that if the Kusunda language becomes extinct, a unique and important part of our human heritage will be lost. A language isolate is a language which has no known structural or historical relationship to any other language (Crystal 1997: 328). Prominent Nepali linguist Yadav (2014), believes that Kusunda language do not belong to other South Asian languages, so it should be classified as Himalayish Group. But Jha (2006) insists that the Kusunda language is not related to the Tibeto-Burman family. According to him, one group of anthropologists and linguists propose that Ban Rajas are Tibeto-Burman people, another set their colleagues to argue that the Ban Rajas of Nepal is probably the remnants of the original populations that came to The Himalayas from Africa and traveled south and populated Australia, New-Zealand and the Indo-Pacific Islands.

The group of American anthropologists Whitehouse et.al (2004) mentioned similar types of concepts about Kusunda language. According to them, the Kusunda language is a very rare and unique language of Nepal. Their research indicates that the Kusunda language is a member of the Indo-Pacific family and this family of language is located on New Guinea and surrounding islands. According to their research, the possibility of Kusunda language is a remnant of the migration that led to the initial peopling of New Guinea and Australia warrants additional investigation from both linguistic and genetic perspectives. They also mention that Kusunda has been misclassified as a Tibeto-Burman language. Instead, they claim on some linguistic evidence that this language is a member of the Indo-Pacific family though it needs to be further supported by its speakers’ DNA evidence. Similar but more detailed concepts were described by Merritt (2006) on the Kusunda language of Nepal. The Kusunda has long been regarded as one of the three relic tribes of South Asia (the Vedda of Sri Lanka and the Andamanese of on the Andaman Islands are the other two). They are or were until recently, semi-nomadic hunters-gathers, living in Jungles and forests, with a language that shows no similar to surrounding languages. They are often described as shorter and darker than neighboring tribes. Current research indicates that the Kusunda language is a member of the Indo-Pacific family, with a pronominal system that is strikingly similar to that found in the Andaman Islands. This is a surprising finding inasmuch as the Indo-Pacific family is located on New Guinea and surrounding islands (including the Andamanese Islands), making Kusunda the first Indo-Pacific language ever found on the Asian mainland.

A recent study of the genetics of the Andaman –Islanders (Thangaraj et.al, 2006) found that they belong to mt DNA haplogroup M, which has been taken as an indicator of the first out-of-Africa migration that led to the initial peopling of Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and Australia. Furthermore, the Andamanese belong to a subgroup of M that has not been found in either Africa or Asia and they share a substitution at position 16357 that is only present at high frequencies in the Andaman Islands and in one of the major founding lineage of New Guinea and Island Melanesia. This genetic evidence suggests that the Andamanese are descendants of the first Paleolithic colonizers of Southeast Asia and if genetic data can be obtained from the few remaining Kusunda it will be interesting to see if this genetic evidence supports the conclusions we have reached on the basis of their language.

 According to Reinhard (1970), on the basis of vocabulary, the Kusunda language does not appear to be related to any of the major language families of South Asia. However, it does share a feature common to other Tibeto-Burman languages of the Himalayas. Based on the pronominalization, Reinhard proposed Kusunda probably belongs to the Munda language family. Other two possible options he proposed were either Kusunda borrowed pronominalization from Munda family at a later date indicating no relationship with the major languages families or Kusunda belongs to an archaic language group such as Burushaski and languages of the Caucasus from which Munda language might have borrowed pronominalization. The latest study indicates that the Kusunda, whose genetic affiliation was considered undecided earlier, has been now said to belong to the Himalayish group of Tibeto-Burman (Sino-Tibetan) languages (Grimes, 2000 and Yadav, 2014). But the Ethnologue (2009), continues to classify Kusunda as Tibeto-Burman language group. Similarly, B.K.Rana (2002), continues to insist that Kusunda is Tibeto-Burman on the basis of a few putative cognates and some very unconvincing typological corresponding. Hence, we can draw a conclusion that the Kusunda language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman language group found in Himalayan region.

 

References

Crystal, D. (1997). Language death, Cambridge University Press.

Ethnologue (2009). Languages of Nepal, Retrieved from,  http://www.enthnologue.org/

Grimes, J.A., Nielsen, S.J., Battaglioli, E., Miska, E.A., Speh, J.C., Berry, D.L., Atouf, F., Holdener, B.C., Mandel, G., & Kouzarides, T. (2000). Journal Article Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't | Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S.

Jha, A.R. (2006). Mentavolution: My thoughts on evolution/anthropology. Nepaliaashis. Retrieved from, Word press.com/2006/08/26/genetic-evidence-for-origins-of ban.rajas-kusundas-of-nepal.

Merritt, R. (2006). Evolution of human languages: An international project on the linguistic prehistory of humanity: Santa Fe Institute www.ehl.santafe.edu/ruhlen.htm.

Pokherel, M.P. (2012). B.B.C. Report. Retrieved from, www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-17537845.

Rana, B.K. (2002). Kusunda language does not fall in any family. Retrieved from, http//listeerv.emich-Edu/CGI-bin/wa?A2=indou.

Reinhard, J. & Tim, T.(1970). A preliminary linguistic analysis and vocabulary of the Kusunda language. Summer Institute of linguistic, T. U. Nepal.

 Thangaraj, K., Chaubey, G., Reddy, A.G. et al. (2006). Unique origin of Andaman Islanders: insight from autosomal loci. J Hum Genet 51, 800–804. Retrieved from, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10038-006-0026-0

Whitehouse, P., Timothy, U., Ruhlen, M. & William S.-Y. Wang (2004). Kusunda: An Indo-pacific language in Nepal. Retrieved from, www.pnas.org/content/101/15/5692.

Yadav, Y.P. (2014). Language use in Nepal, Population monograph of Nepal, CBS, Kathmandu.

कुसुन्डा जातिको अध्ययन

कुसुन्डा अध्ययनको पृष्ठभूमि 

सन् १९५० भन्दा अघि पश्चिमी विश्वलाई नेपाल अध्ययनको अनुमति थिएन । राणाकालिन अवधिको रुपमा समेत लिइने यो अवधिमा नेपालको सम्बन्ध ब्रिटिस– भारतको निर्देशनमा संचालित थियो । यो अवधिमा ब्रिटिस सरकारका उच्च पदाधिकारीले नेपालको भ्रमण र अध्ययन गर्दथे । ब्रिटिस पदाधिकारी मध्येका एक ब्राइन हडसन  ले सर्वप्रथम नेपालका कुसुन्डा जातिको बारेमा सन् १८४८ मा एक लेख  लेखि छपाइएका थिए । चेपाङ र कुसुन्डालाई एकै ठाउँमा राखी लेखीएको उन्को लेखमा चेपाङ र कुसुन्डालाई जङ्गलमा चहारी हिड्ने जातिको रुपमा उल्लेख गरिएको थियो । त्यसपछि कुसुन्डाको बारेमा कलम चलाउने विद्वानमा क्याप्टेन सि.जे.एफ.फोरवेस पर्दछन् जसले सन् १८७७ मा चेपाङ, कुसुन्डा र अन्य तिब्बत–बर्मन भाषिक समूह बीचको सम्बन्धको बारेमा उल्लेख गरेका थिए । उन्को लेखमा  कुसुन्डा र अन्य पहाडी जातिको भाषामा निकटता रहेको उल्लेख गरिएको थियो। सन् १९०९ मा प्रकाशितमा स्टेन कोनो को लेखले कुसुन्डा भाषालाई तिब्बती–वर्मन समुदायको भाषाको रुपमा उल्लेख गरेको छ  । 

कुसुन्डाको बारेमा विस्तृत रुपमा अध्ययन गरि रिपोर्ट प्रकाशित गर्ने अर्काे विद्वानमा जोन रेनहार्ड हुन् जसले सन् १९६८ मा कुसुन्डाको बारेमा विस्तृत अध्ययन गर्नुका साथै गोर्खा, तनहु र सुर्खेतमा कुसुन्डा रहेको तथ्य सार्वजनिक गरे । पछि सन् १९७० मा  त्रिभुवन विश्व विद्यालयले रेनहार्ड र जापानी भाषाविद तोवाको सहयोगमा लेखिएको कुसुण्डा भाषा को ब्याकरण प्रकाशन  गर्यो । यस पछि पनि कुसुन्डा भाषाको बारेमा विभिन्न विद्वानहरुले विभिन्न ढंगले अध्ययन गरी लेखहरुको प्रकाशन गरेका छन् । कुसुन्डा भाषाको बारेमा अध्ययन गर्ने मुख्य भाषाविदहरुमा चुडामणी बन्धु (१९८५), हवाइट हाउस र उनका साथिहरु , माधव पोख्रेल (२०१२) डेभिड ई.वाटर्स , गणेशमान  गुरुङ , भोजराज गौतम, उदयराज आले, तथा गोकर्ण ज्ञवाली  (म स्वयम् ) ले कुसुन्डा भाषा र यिनीहरुको अन्य पक्षको बारेमा अध्ययन गरेका थिए । यसको साथै अन्य कतिपय विदेशी भाषाविदहरुले पनि कुसुण्डा भाषाको बारेमा प्रसस्त अध्ययन गरेका छन्।   यि धेरै जसो अध्ययन मूलतः भाषासँग सम्बन्धित भएकोले यिनीहरुमा कुसुन्डा संस्कृतिको बारेमा खासै उल्लेख गरेको पाइदैन । कुसुण्डा जातिको सामाजिक, सांस्कृतिक, आर्थिक लगायत सबै पक्ष्यको वारेमा अध्ययन  भने यसमा पी एच डी  गर्ने गोकर्ण ज्ञवाली नै हुन्।  उनले कुसुन्डा जातिको सामाजिक, सांस्कृतिक, भाषीक र आर्थिक पक्षको बारेमा विस्तृत अध्ययन गरि  त्रि. वि. वाट पि. डी. गरेका थिय।  

जंगली अवस्था वाट ब्यबस्थित जीवनमा रुपान्तरण हुने जातिको रुपमा कुसुण्डा पछिल्लो जाति हो अव राउटे उक्त प्रक्रिया मा रहेका छन्।  रुपान्तरित जीवनको अध्ययन गर्नेहरुका लागि कुसुण्डा एक महत्वपुर्ण जाति हुन सक्छ। सन् १९७०को दशकदेखि ब्यबस्थित जीवनमा प्रवेश गरेका कुसुण्डा जातिले राज्यका विभेदकारी नीतिको कारण सधै शरणार्थीको रुपमा जीवन व्यथित गर्नु पर्यो l पछिल्लो अवधिमा मात्र राज्यले जनता आवास कार्यक्रम अन्तर्गत घर बनाइ दिने योजना अघि सारेपछि मात्र कुसुण्डाले स्थाई बसोबास गर्न थालेका हुन् l हाल यिनीहरुको जनसंख्या १५१ रहेको छ तर केन्द्रीय तथ्यांक विभागका अनुसार भने यिनीहरुको जनसंख्या २७३ रहेको छ l 

Populations of Kusunda People in Nepal

Populations of Kusunda (A comparative Study)

The ethnic group Kusunda, had no single permanent settlement due to their long-continued nomadic nature before their settlement. Before, the 1970s, Kusunda people also were in nomadic situations. According to the Kusunda population and settlement found from the field, Dang, has the biggest population  and other settlement areas are in Pyuthan, Surkhet, and Gorkha. The population of Kusunda from various years is given in the table.

Population of Kusunda

Districts	2001	2011	From field study, 2018
Baitadi	12
Doti	7
Achham	1
Kanchanpur	1
Kailali	4
Pyuthan	19	18	41
Dang	4	98
Surkhet			26
Rolpa			2
Tanahun			3
Gorkha	12		11
Kapilbastu	1		5
Arghakhanchi			4 (migrated to India)
Rupendehi	1
Sindhupalchok	11
Ramachhap	41
Kathmandu	1	13
Chitwan	10
Bara	2
Rautahat	1
Sarlahi	2
Mahottari	2
Taplejung	7
Bhojpur	1
Siraha	2	14
Saptari	7
Morang	2	41
Jhapa		14
Sunsari		15
Total	164	213	151

       Source: CBS- 2001 and 2011; Field study, 2018.

The settlement and population of Kusunda found in 23 districts according to 2001 and 7 districts according to the 2011 census of Nepal. The data shows that, there is large number of populations in Ramechhap, Sindhuplanchok, Baitadi, Morang, Jhapa, and Sunsari. But from field study there is no single populations of Kusunda. From the field study conducted myself in between 2014-16  Kusunda were found in Dang, Surkhet, Gorkha, Tanahau, and other western parts of Nepal. The data provided by CBS (2011), the number of Kusunda has 273, but on my research, there were only 151 Kusundas in Nepal.

Category of Indigenous People of Nepal

Category of Indigenous People and Endangered Languages of Nepal

There are various definitions of indigenous people. Mainly those people who have distinct identities, language, culture, and history are the indigenous people. According to the National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities (NFDIN)(2002), the indigenous nationalities (Adivasi Janajati) as distinct communities having their own mother tongues, traditional cultures, written and unwritten histories, traditional homeland, and geographical areas, plus egalitarian social structures. The act mentioned that, following are the major characteristics of indigenous people :  

·         A distinct collective identity,

·         Own language, religion, tradition, culture, and civilization,

·         Own traditional egalitarian social structure,

·         Traditional homeland or geographical area,

·         Written or oral history,

·         Having ´We´ feeling,

·         Has had no decisive role in the politics and government of modern Nepal,

·         Who are the indigenous or native peoples of Nepal, and

·         Who declares itself as ´Janajati

With the above-mentioned characteristics, Nepal has 59 indigenous people. But these are categorized in different ways like ecological, provincial, ethnic, linguistics, etc. Based on the development, mainly, there are five types of ethnic communities in Nepal. 

      Table no.1: Category of ethnic people of Nepal

1.        Advanced Group (2)	Newar, Thakali
2.        Disadvantaged Group (14)	Tangbe, TeengaunleThakali, BarahgaunleThakali, MarphaliThakali, Gurung, Magar, Rai, Limbu, Sherpa, Yakkha, Chhantyal, Jirel, Byansi, Yolmo
3.       Marginalized Group (19)	Sunuwar, Tharu, Tamang, Bhujel, Kumal, Rajbanshi, Gangaai, Dhimal, Bhote, Darai, Tajpuriya, Pahari, Topkegola, Dolpo, Mugal, Larke, Lohpa, Dura, Walung
4.        High Marginalized Group (12)	Majhi, Siyar, Lhomi (Shinsaba), Thundam, Dhanuk, Chepang, Santhal, Jhagad, Thami, Bote, Danuwar, Baramu
5.       Endangered Group (10)	Kusunda, Bankariya, Raute, Surel, Hayu, Raji, Kisan, Lepcha, Meche, Kuswadiya

Source: NFDIN 2002

Among these, endangered people are in very critical situations. Their traditional culture, norms, values, rituals, and mother tongue is in endangered conditions. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2009), identifies that among these variables language is a very important factor because it carries/transmits the culture from one generation to another. 

Endangered Languages of Nepal 

According to UNESCO (2009), an endangered language is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out or shift speaking to another language. To determine the language as endangered, UNESCO outlines the following 9 factors.

1. Intergenerational language transmission

2. The absolute number of speakers

3. The proportion of speakers existing within the total (global) population

4. Language use within existing contexts and domains

5. Response to language use in new domains and media

6. Availability of materials for language education and literacy

7. Government and institutional language policies

8. Community attitudes toward their language

9. Amount and quality of documentation

These components also determine the endangeredness of ethnic communities. About 90 percent of Nepalese languages are in endangered situations. Most of the languages of the indigenous people of Nepal are on the verge of extinction The UNESCO mentioned the eight stages of language endangerment. The stages and levels of endangered languages of Nepal are explained by various linguistics, some of them are mentioned in the following table:

Table no.2: Stages and number of Nepalese languages

S.N.	Stages of language endangerment	No. of lgs.	Explained by
1	1. Safe (10 lakh to 1 lakh ) 2. Endangered (1 lakh to 10 thousand) 3. Most endangered (10 thousand to 1 thousand) 4. Dead languages (less than 1 thousand) 5. Dead languages (no listed no.)	15 15 25 19 33	Noonan (2008)
2	1. Extinct Kirati language 2. Dormank language 3. Nearly extinct languages 4. Moribund languages 5. Shifting languages 6. Threatened language 7. Vigorous language 8. Incipient/written language 9. Institutional/educational languages 10. Trade language 11. Regional and National languages 12. International languages	40 1 6 3 4 10 1 7 7 2 1 1	Pokherel (2012)
3	1. Safe languages 2. Almost safe 3. Potentially endangered 4. Endangered languages 5. Seriously endangered language 6. Moribund languages 7. Extinct languages	17 15 8 22 12 7 11	Regmi (2012)
4	1. Vulnerable languages 2. Definitely endangered languages 3. Severely endangered languages 4. Critically endangered languages	13 30 12 6	Moseley (2012)

Source: Noonan (2008), Pokherel (2011), Regmi (2012), and Moseley (2010).

Among these four categories, Regmi’s categorization is most comprehensive and more detailed than others. In the sense of endangerment, Regmi (2012) says that many spoken languages, especially of indigenous nationalities, have not yet been recorded in the 2001, census. Linguists from home and abroad as well as the speech communities are very concerned about the situation of languages of Nepal. Many languages in Nepal are used in a few domains only by a few adult speakers. Such languages have been categorized as seriously endangered. According to the CBS Report 2011, the total languages of Nepal and their population are listed in the following table.

Table no.3: Distribution of languages on the basis of number.

S.N.	Linguistic population	Name of Languages	No.
1	More than 100,000	Nepali, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Tharu, Tamang, Newar, Magar, Avadhi, Bantawa, Gurung, Limbu, Bajjika, Urdu, Rajbanshi, Sherpa, Rai, Achhami, Doteli and Baitedeli.	19
2	100,000-20,000	Hindi, Chamling, Santhali, Chepang, Danuwar, Urau, Sunuwar, Bangla, Rajasthani, Majhi, Thami, Kulung, Thulung, Bhujel, Magahi, Bahangi and Kham.	17
3	20,000-10,000	Dhimal, Angika, Yakkha, Sampang, Darai, Khaling, Kumal, Wambule, Bajureli, Hyolmo, Nachhiring, Bahing and Tajpuriya.	13
4	10,000-5,000	Thakali, Dumi, Puma, Lepcha, Bote, Yamphu, Ghale, Dungmali, Athapariya and Darchuleli.	10
5	5,ooo-2,000	Dailekhi, Lhopa, Gangai, Koche, Dura, Chhintang, Mewahang, English, Raji, Lohorung, Chhiling, Pahari, Meche, Jirel, Tibetan, Chhantyal and Sign lgs.	17
6	2,000-1,000	Koyee, Hayu, Sanskrit, Musalman, Kisan, Tilung, Jero, Khash, Waling, and Dolpali.	10
7	1,000-500	Sonaha, Jumli, Belhare, Lhomi, Hariyanwi, Sindhi, Oriya and Panjabi.	8
8	Less than 500	Byansi, Khariya, Chinese, Kaike, Baram, Khamchi, Lingkhim, Kusunda, Sam, Kurmali, Kagate, Dzonkha, Kuki, Mizo, Nagamese, Assami, Sadhani, Malpande, Dhuleli, Arabi, Spanish, Russian, Phangduwali, Surel, Bankariya, French, Dadeldhuri, Manange and Gadwali.	29
9	Total		123

Source: CBS-2011

If we agree with the concept of Krauss, more than 100 languages of Nepal are in an endangered position.  Nepal is one of the linguistically diverse countries in South Asia accommodating more than 92 languages (CBS 2001) and 123 (CBS 2011) and belonging to four language families: Indo-Aryan, Tibeto-Burman, Austro-Asiatic, and Dravidian in addition to Kusunda, a language isolate. According to Ghimire (Nepal.heritage.language.pdf.file ), a large number of languages in Nepal are threatened to disappear due to the small number of speakers, limited domains of language use, and weaker intergenerational transmission. About 87% of the country’s population speaks five major languages, namely Nepali, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Tharu, and Tamang. Nepali was the only language that has been used in education, and administration among these languages.

Most endangered languages of Nepal

According to CBS (2001), out of 92 identified languages 59 languages each has less than ten thousand speakers and the total population speaking these non-dominant languages is about 0.5%. Various local and foreign linguistics classified the different types of language on the basis of their number, intergenerational transmission, documentation practices, and other components. Some scholars and their classification of endangered languages are listed in the following table:

Table no.4: Numbers of endangered languages of Nepal.

S.N.	Explained by	Endangered and Extinct Languages	Number of languages
1	Noonan (2008) and Regmi (2012)	Khaling,  Kumal, Thakali, Chhantyal, Dumi, Jirel, Bambule, Puma, Yhlamo, Nachhiring, Dura, Meche, Pahari, Lepcha, Bote, Wahing, Koyu, Raji, Hayu, Bayshi, Yamphu, Ghale, Khadiya, Chhiling, Lohorung. Mebahang, Kaike, Raute, Kishan, Chhuraute, Baramu, Tilung, Jerung, Dungmali, Linkhim, Kusunda, Koche, Saam, Kagate, Chhintang, Yholmi, Himali, Bhote, Munda . Kusbadia, Bankaria, Surel, Siyar, Thudam, Dhanuk, Gangain, Tajpuria, walung, Topkegola, Dolpo, Free, Larke, Mugali, Lhopa, Chhaurotan, Tangway, Baragaunle, Marphali, Thakali, Kham-Magar, Lumbayakha, Aathpaharia, Mugali, Chhukhya, Polmoya, Waling, Lambichang, Phangduwali, Chhulung, Belhare, Managwa,  and Narphu.	77
3	Moseley (2010)	Athapariya, Bahing, Chamling, Chantyal, Chiling, Dolpo, Dungmali, Gurung, Gyasumdo, Halung, Tibetan, Jirel, Kagate, Kaike, Khaccad Bhote, Khaling, Langtang Tibetan, Limirong Tibetan, Loke Tibetan, Magar, Narpha, Newar, Nurpi, Nyishangba, Thangmi, Thulung, Tilung, Tsum, Yamphu,Chintang, Darai, Dhimal, Kumale, Lohorung, Majhi, Mawahang, Nachiring, Puma, Raji, Raute, Sam, Baram, Dumi, Hayu, Kusunda, Surel, Yakkha.	47
4	Yadav and Turin (2009)	Kumal, Thakali, Chantyal, Dumi, Jirel, Athpariya, Mugali, Belhare, Umbule, Puma, Yholmo, Nacchering, Dura, Meche, Pahari, Lepcha, Bote, Bahing, Koi, Raji, Hayu, Byangsi, Yamphu, Ghale, Khariya, Chhiling, Lohorung, Sunuwar, Majhi, Bhujel, Mewahang, Kaike, Raute, Kisan, Chuarauti, Baram, Tilung, Jerung, Dungmali, Baragaunle, Nar-phu, Manangwa , Lingkhim, Kusunda, Koce, Sam, Kagate, Chhintang, Lhomi, Byangsi, Chonkha, Longaba, Mugali, Sambya, Pongyong, Bungla, Chukwa, Hedangba, Waling, and Khandung.	60

Source: Noonan (2008), Regmi (2012), Moseley (2010), Yadav and Turin (2009).

The table indicates that more than 85% languages of Nepal are in an endangered situation. Similarly according to CBS (2011), out of 123, there are about 45 languages that have less than a thousand speakers which are listed on the following table:

Table no.5: Most endangered languages of Nepal.

S. N.	Name of languages	Linguistic population 2001	Linguistic population 2011
1	Kusunda	87	28
2	Jero/Jerung	271	1763
3	Tilung	310	1424
4	Churaute	408	1075
5	Kisan	489	1178
6	Sam	23	201
7	Koche	54	280
8	Oriya	159	584
9	Sanskrit	823	1669
10	Limkhim	97	129
11	Khamchi (Raute)	518	461
12	Kaike	794	50
13	Khariya	1575	238
14	Kagate	10	99
15	Lhomi	04	808
16	Sadhani	02	122
17	Assamese	03	476
18	Nagamese	06	10
19	Mizo	08	32
20	Kuki	09	29
21	Dzonkha	09	80
22	Kurmali	13	227
23	Hariyanwi	33	889
24	Sindhi	72	518
25	Baram	342	155

Source: CBS 2001 and 2011.

 

References

Central Bureau of Statistics (2001). Population census. National Planning Commission (NPC), Thapathali, Kathmandu.

 Central Bureau of Statistics (2011). Population census. National Planning Commission (NPC), Thapathali, Kathmandu.

Moseley, C. (eds) (2010). Atlas of the Worlds Languages in Danger, 3rd edition Paris: UNESCO Publishing. Online version: http://www.unesco.org/culture/en/endangeredlanguages/atlas.

NFDIN (2002). NFDIN act, retrieved from https://www.indigenoustelevision.com/indigenous-voice/episode/30

Noonan, M (2008).  Kantipur national daily.  Kathmandu Kantipur Publication house.

Pokherel (2011). Patterns of language endangerment in Nepal, retrieved from https://genderi.org/patterns-of-language-endangerment-in-nepal.html

Regmi, D. R. (2012). Linguistic surveys in Nepal: A glimpses. www.tribhuvan-university.edu.np/tu/20 bulliten%20special% 2011-12/46-57.pdf.

UNESCO (2009). Investing in cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue (UNESCO world report). Paris, France: UNESCO.

Yadava, Y.P. & Turin, M. (2009).  Indigenous languages of Nepal: a critical analysis of the linguistic situation and contemporary issues. In Yadava and Bajracharya eds. Indigenous Languages of Nepal: Situation, Policy Planning, and Coordination, Kathmandu: NFDIN.