Category of Indigenous People and Endangered Languages of Nepal
There are various definitions of indigenous people. Mainly those people who have distinct identities, language, culture, and history are the indigenous people. According to the National
Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities (NFDIN)(2002), the indigenous nationalities (Adivasi Janajati) as
distinct communities having their own mother tongues, traditional cultures,
written and unwritten histories, traditional homeland, and geographical areas,
plus egalitarian social structures. The act mentioned that, following are the
major characteristics of indigenous people :
· A distinct collective identity,
·
Own language, religion, tradition, culture, and civilization,
·
Own traditional egalitarian social
structure,
·
Traditional homeland or geographical area,
·
Written or oral history,
·
Having ´We´ feeling,
·
Has had no decisive role in the politics
and government of modern Nepal,
·
Who are the indigenous or native peoples
of Nepal, and
·
Who declares itself as ´Janajati
With the above-mentioned characteristics, Nepal has 59 indigenous people. But these are categorized in different ways like ecological, provincial, ethnic, linguistics, etc. Based on the development, mainly, there are five types of ethnic communities in Nepal.
Table no.1: Category of ethnic people of Nepal
1. Advanced Group (2)
|
Newar, Thakali
|
2. Disadvantaged Group (14)
|
Tangbe, TeengaunleThakali, BarahgaunleThakali, MarphaliThakali,
Gurung, Magar, Rai, Limbu, Sherpa, Yakkha, Chhantyal, Jirel, Byansi, Yolmo
|
3.
Marginalized Group (19)
|
Sunuwar, Tharu, Tamang, Bhujel, Kumal, Rajbanshi, Gangaai, Dhimal,
Bhote, Darai, Tajpuriya, Pahari, Topkegola, Dolpo, Mugal, Larke, Lohpa, Dura,
Walung
|
4. High Marginalized Group (12)
|
Majhi, Siyar, Lhomi (Shinsaba), Thundam, Dhanuk, Chepang, Santhal,
Jhagad, Thami, Bote, Danuwar, Baramu
|
5.
Endangered Group (10)
|
Kusunda, Bankariya, Raute, Surel, Hayu, Raji, Kisan, Lepcha, Meche,
Kuswadiya
|
Source: NFDIN 2002
Among these, endangered people are in very critical situations. Their traditional culture, norms, values, rituals, and mother tongue is in endangered conditions. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2009), identifies that among these variables language is a very important factor because it carries/transmits the culture from one generation to another.
Endangered Languages of Nepal
According to UNESCO (2009), an endangered language is at risk of falling out
of use as its speakers die out or shift speaking to another language. To determine the language as endangered, UNESCO outlines the following 9
factors.
1. Intergenerational language transmission
2. The absolute number of speakers
3. The proportion of speakers existing within the
total (global) population
4. Language use within existing contexts and domains
5. Response to language use in new domains and media
6. Availability of materials for language education
and literacy
7. Government and institutional language policies
8. Community attitudes toward their language
9. Amount and quality of documentation
These components also determine the endangeredness of ethnic communities. About 90 percent of Nepalese languages are in endangered situations. Most of the languages of the indigenous people of Nepal are on the verge of extinction The UNESCO mentioned the eight stages of language endangerment. The stages and
levels of endangered languages of Nepal are explained by various linguistics,
some of them are mentioned in the following table:
Table no.2: Stages and number of Nepalese
languages
|
S.N.
|
Stages of
language endangerment
|
No. of lgs.
|
Explained by
|
|
1
|
1. Safe (10 lakh
to 1 lakh )
2. Endangered (1
lakh to 10 thousand)
3. Most
endangered (10 thousand to 1 thousand)
4. Dead
languages (less than 1 thousand)
5. Dead
languages (no listed no.)
|
15
15
25
19
33
|
Noonan (2008)
|
|
2
|
1. Extinct
Kirati language
2. Dormank
language
3. Nearly
extinct languages
4. Moribund
languages
5. Shifting
languages
6. Threatened
language
7. Vigorous
language
8.
Incipient/written language
9.
Institutional/educational languages
10. Trade
language
11. Regional and
National languages
12.
International languages
|
40
1
6
3
4
10
1
7
7
2
1
1
|
Pokherel (2012)
|
|
3
|
1. Safe
languages
2. Almost safe
3. Potentially
endangered
4. Endangered
languages
5. Seriously
endangered language
6. Moribund
languages
7. Extinct
languages
|
17
15
8
22
12
7
11
|
Regmi (2012)
|
|
4
|
1. Vulnerable
languages
2. Definitely
endangered languages
3. Severely
endangered languages
4. Critically
endangered languages
|
13
30
12
6
|
Moseley (2012)
|
Source: Noonan (2008), Pokherel (2011),
Regmi (2012), and Moseley (2010).
Among these four categories, Regmi’s
categorization is most comprehensive and more detailed than others. In the sense
of endangerment, Regmi (2012) says that many spoken languages, especially of indigenous nationalities, have not yet been recorded in the 2001, census.
Linguists from home and abroad as well as the speech communities are very
concerned about the situation of languages of Nepal. Many languages in Nepal
are used in a few domains only by a few adult speakers. Such languages have
been categorized as seriously endangered. According to the CBS Report 2011, the total
languages of Nepal and their population are listed in the following table.
Table no.3:
Distribution of languages on the basis of number.
|
S.N.
|
Linguistic population
|
Name of
Languages
|
No.
|
|
1
|
More than
100,000
|
Nepali,
Maithili, Bhojpuri, Tharu, Tamang, Newar, Magar, Avadhi, Bantawa, Gurung,
Limbu, Bajjika, Urdu, Rajbanshi, Sherpa, Rai, Achhami, Doteli and Baitedeli.
|
19
|
|
2
|
100,000-20,000
|
Hindi, Chamling,
Santhali, Chepang, Danuwar, Urau, Sunuwar, Bangla, Rajasthani, Majhi, Thami,
Kulung, Thulung, Bhujel, Magahi, Bahangi and Kham.
|
17
|
|
3
|
20,000-10,000
|
Dhimal, Angika,
Yakkha, Sampang, Darai, Khaling, Kumal, Wambule, Bajureli, Hyolmo,
Nachhiring, Bahing and Tajpuriya.
|
13
|
|
4
|
10,000-5,000
|
Thakali, Dumi,
Puma, Lepcha, Bote, Yamphu, Ghale, Dungmali, Athapariya and Darchuleli.
|
10
|
|
5
|
5,ooo-2,000
|
Dailekhi, Lhopa,
Gangai, Koche, Dura, Chhintang, Mewahang, English, Raji, Lohorung, Chhiling,
Pahari, Meche, Jirel, Tibetan, Chhantyal and Sign lgs.
|
17
|
|
6
|
2,000-1,000
|
Koyee, Hayu,
Sanskrit, Musalman, Kisan, Tilung, Jero, Khash, Waling, and Dolpali.
|
10
|
|
7
|
1,000-500
|
Sonaha, Jumli,
Belhare, Lhomi, Hariyanwi, Sindhi, Oriya and Panjabi.
|
8
|
|
8
|
Less than 500
|
Byansi, Khariya,
Chinese, Kaike, Baram, Khamchi, Lingkhim, Kusunda, Sam, Kurmali, Kagate,
Dzonkha, Kuki, Mizo, Nagamese, Assami, Sadhani, Malpande, Dhuleli, Arabi,
Spanish, Russian, Phangduwali, Surel, Bankariya, French, Dadeldhuri, Manange
and Gadwali.
|
29
|
|
9
|
Total
|
|
123
|
Source: CBS-2011
If we agree with the concept of Krauss,
more than 100 languages of Nepal are in an endangered position. Nepal is one of the
linguistically diverse countries in South Asia accommodating more than 92
languages (CBS 2001) and 123 (CBS 2011) and belonging to four language
families: Indo-Aryan, Tibeto-Burman, Austro-Asiatic, and Dravidian in addition
to Kusunda, a language isolate. According to Ghimire
(Nepal.heritage.language.pdf.file ), a large number of languages in Nepal are
threatened to disappear due to the small number of speakers, limited domains of
language use, and weaker intergenerational transmission. About 87% of the
country’s population speaks five major languages, namely Nepali, Maithili,
Bhojpuri, Tharu, and Tamang. Nepali was the only language
that has been used in education, and administration among these languages.
Most endangered languages of Nepal
According
to CBS (2001), out of 92 identified languages 59 languages each has less than
ten thousand speakers and the total population speaking these non-dominant
languages is about 0.5%. Various local and foreign
linguistics classified the different types of language on the basis of their
number, intergenerational transmission, documentation practices, and other
components. Some scholars and their classification of endangered languages are
listed in the following table:
Table no.4: Numbers of endangered languages of
Nepal.
|
S.N.
|
Explained by
|
Endangered
and Extinct Languages
|
Number of languages
|
|
1
|
Noonan (2008) and Regmi (2012)
|
Khaling, Kumal, Thakali, Chhantyal, Dumi, Jirel,
Bambule, Puma, Yhlamo, Nachhiring, Dura, Meche, Pahari, Lepcha, Bote, Wahing,
Koyu, Raji, Hayu, Bayshi, Yamphu, Ghale, Khadiya, Chhiling, Lohorung.
Mebahang, Kaike, Raute, Kishan, Chhuraute, Baramu, Tilung, Jerung, Dungmali,
Linkhim, Kusunda, Koche, Saam, Kagate, Chhintang, Yholmi, Himali, Bhote,
Munda . Kusbadia, Bankaria, Surel, Siyar, Thudam, Dhanuk, Gangain, Tajpuria,
walung, Topkegola, Dolpo, Free, Larke, Mugali, Lhopa, Chhaurotan, Tangway,
Baragaunle, Marphali, Thakali, Kham-Magar, Lumbayakha, Aathpaharia, Mugali,
Chhukhya, Polmoya, Waling, Lambichang, Phangduwali, Chhulung, Belhare,
Managwa, and Narphu.
|
77
|
|
3
|
Moseley (2010)
|
Athapariya, Bahing, Chamling, Chantyal, Chiling, Dolpo, Dungmali,
Gurung, Gyasumdo, Halung, Tibetan, Jirel, Kagate, Kaike, Khaccad Bhote,
Khaling, Langtang Tibetan, Limirong Tibetan, Loke Tibetan, Magar, Narpha,
Newar, Nurpi, Nyishangba, Thangmi, Thulung, Tilung, Tsum, Yamphu,Chintang,
Darai, Dhimal, Kumale, Lohorung, Majhi, Mawahang, Nachiring, Puma, Raji,
Raute, Sam, Baram, Dumi, Hayu, Kusunda, Surel, Yakkha.
|
47
|
|
4
|
Yadav and Turin (2009)
|
Kumal, Thakali, Chantyal, Dumi, Jirel,
Athpariya, Mugali, Belhare, Umbule, Puma, Yholmo, Nacchering, Dura, Meche,
Pahari, Lepcha, Bote, Bahing, Koi, Raji, Hayu, Byangsi, Yamphu, Ghale,
Khariya, Chhiling, Lohorung, Sunuwar, Majhi, Bhujel, Mewahang, Kaike, Raute,
Kisan, Chuarauti, Baram, Tilung, Jerung, Dungmali, Baragaunle, Nar-phu,
Manangwa , Lingkhim, Kusunda, Koce, Sam, Kagate, Chhintang, Lhomi, Byangsi,
Chonkha, Longaba, Mugali, Sambya, Pongyong, Bungla, Chukwa, Hedangba, Waling,
and Khandung.
|
60
|
Source:
Noonan (2008), Regmi (2012), Moseley (2010), Yadav and Turin (2009).
The table indicates that more than 85% languages of Nepal are in an endangered
situation. Similarly according to CBS (2011), out of 123, there are about 45
languages that have less than a thousand speakers which are listed on the following table:
Table no.5: Most endangered languages of Nepal.
|
S. N.
|
Name of
languages
|
Linguistic
population 2001
|
Linguistic
population 2011
|
|
1
|
Kusunda
|
87
|
28
|
|
2
|
Jero/Jerung
|
271
|
1763
|
|
3
|
Tilung
|
310
|
1424
|
|
4
|
Churaute
|
408
|
1075
|
|
5
|
Kisan
|
489
|
1178
|
|
6
|
Sam
|
23
|
201
|
|
7
|
Koche
|
54
|
280
|
|
8
|
Oriya
|
159
|
584
|
|
9
|
Sanskrit
|
823
|
1669
|
|
10
|
Limkhim
|
97
|
129
|
|
11
|
Khamchi (Raute)
|
518
|
461
|
|
12
|
Kaike
|
794
|
50
|
|
13
|
Khariya
|
1575
|
238
|
|
14
|
Kagate
|
10
|
99
|
|
15
|
Lhomi
|
04
|
808
|
|
16
|
Sadhani
|
02
|
122
|
|
17
|
Assamese
|
03
|
476
|
|
18
|
Nagamese
|
06
|
10
|
|
19
|
Mizo
|
08
|
32
|
|
20
|
Kuki
|
09
|
29
|
|
21
|
Dzonkha
|
09
|
80
|
|
22
|
Kurmali
|
13
|
227
|
|
23
|
Hariyanwi
|
33
|
889
|
|
24
|
Sindhi
|
72
|
518
|
|
25
|
Baram
|
342
|
155
|
Source: CBS 2001 and 2011.
References
Central Bureau of
Statistics (2001). Population census. National Planning Commission
(NPC), Thapathali, Kathmandu.
Central Bureau of Statistics (2011). Population
census. National Planning Commission (NPC), Thapathali, Kathmandu.
Moseley, C. (eds)
(2010). Atlas of the Worlds Languages in Danger, 3rd edition Paris:
UNESCO Publishing. Online version: http://www.unesco.org/culture/en/endangeredlanguages/atlas.
NFDIN (2002). NFDIN act, retrieved from https://www.indigenoustelevision.com/indigenous-voice/episode/30
Noonan, M (2008). Kantipur national daily. Kathmandu Kantipur Publication house.
Pokherel (2011). Patterns
of language
endangerment in Nepal, retrieved from https://genderi.org/patterns-of-language-endangerment-in-nepal.html
Regmi, D. R.
(2012). Linguistic surveys in Nepal: A glimpses. www.tribhuvan-university.edu.np/tu/20
bulliten%20special% 2011-12/46-57.pdf.
UNESCO (2009). Investing in cultural diversity and
intercultural dialogue (UNESCO world report). Paris, France: UNESCO.
Yadava, Y.P. & Turin, M. (2009). Indigenous languages of Nepal: a critical
analysis of the linguistic situation and contemporary issues. In Yadava and
Bajracharya eds. Indigenous Languages of Nepal: Situation, Policy Planning, and Coordination, Kathmandu: NFDIN.
